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by tons instead of by pounds, it would never in itself have given
the nation its present preeminence in the steel industry
Though the Bessemer process made possible the production of steel
by tons instead of by pounds, it would never in itself have given
the nation its present preeminence in the steel industry. Iron
had been mined in the United States for two centuries on a small
scale, the main deposits being located in the Lake Champlain
region of New York and in western Pennsylvania. But these, and a
hundred other places located along the Atlantic coast, could not
have produced ore in quantities sufficient to satisfy the yawning
jaws of the Bessemer converters. As this new method poured out
the liquid in thousands of tons, and as the commercial demand
extended in a dozen different directions, the cry went up from
the furnace”s for more ore. And again Nature, which has favored
America in so many directions, came to her assistance.
Manufacturers in the steel regions began to recall strange
stories which had been floating down for many years from the
wilderness surrounding Lake Superior. The recollection of a
famous voyage made in this region by Philo M. Everett, as far
back as 1845, now laid siege to the imagination of the new
generation of ironmasters. For years the Indians had told Everett
of the ‘mountains of iron’ that lay on the Minnesota shore of
Lake Superior and had described their wonders in words that
finally impelled this hardy adventurer to make a voyage of
exploration. For six weeks, in company with two Indian guides,
Everett had navigated a small boat along the shores of the Lake,
covering a distance that now takes only a few hours. The Indians
had long regarded this silent, red iron region with a
superstitious reverence, and now, as the little party approached,
they refused to complete the journey. ‘Iron Mountain!’ they said,
pointing northward along the trail–’Indian not go near; white
man go!’ The sight which presently met Everett”s eyes repaid him
well for his solitary tramp in the forest. He found himself face
to face with a ‘mountain a hundred and fifty feet high, of solid
ore, which looked as bright as a bar of iron just broken.’ Other
explorations subsequently laid open the whole of the Minnesota
fields, including the Mesaba, which developed into the world”s
greatest iron range. America has other regions rich in ore,
particularly in Alabama, located alongside the coal and limestone
so necessary in steel production; yet it has drawn two-thirds of
its whole supply from these Lake Superior fields. Not only the
quantity, which is apparently limitless, but the quality explains
America”s leadership in steel making.

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Britain are observable
Similar differences with respect to our import trade and that of Great
Britain are observable. Our imports do not amount to more than from
$600,000,000 to $800,000,000 a year. For the year ended June 30, 1897,
they were $765,000,000. For the year ended June 30, 1898, they were
$616,000,000. The imports of Great Britain, on the other hand, amount
to over $2,000,000,000 a year. For the year 1896 they were
$2,210,000,000. For the year 1897 they were $2,225,000,000. But, while
our imports, with the exception of coffee, sugar, tea, fruits, and
fish, consist chiefly of manufactured articles, such as woollen goods,
cotton goods, silk goods, and iron and steel goods, with only moderate
amounts of raw material (for example, hides, skins, and furs,
$41,000,000; raw silk, $32,000,000; raw wool, $17,000,000), Great
Britain, besides importing coffee, sugar, tea, fruits, and fish, the
same as we do, and manufactured goods to a far greater amount than we
do (not less than $500,000,000 annually), imports likewise an enormous
quantity of raw material for her manufactures, all duty free, and a
still more enormous quantity of breadstuffs, provisions, etc., also
all duty free. For example, for the year 1897 her imports of raw
materials for her manufactures were not less than $750,-000,000,
while her imports of duty-free food products were not less than
$825,000,000. The difference between the two countries, therefore, so
far as their foreign trades are concerned is simply this: The United
States is an immense exporter of food-stuffs, and also of raw
materials for foreign manufacture; but for the raw materials for her
own manufacture she depends principally upon her own products. In
comparison she is only a moderate exporter of manufactured goods.
Great Britain, on the other hand, is an enormous importer and consumer
of food-stuffs and also of raw materials for her manufactures. She, in
fact, depends very largely upon other countries for her food products
and her raw materials, and obtains them wherever she can, very largely
from the United States. She is also an enormous exporter of
manufactures.

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_signs_, _etc
Also _figures_, _fractions_, _points_, _references_, _braces_,
_signs_, _etc._ Printers divide a font of letters into two classes:

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want to invest their means in good securities
With the growth of wealth we find increasing numbers of persons who
want to invest their means in good securities. To do this successfully
and safely is a very difficult question. It is even more difficult to
keep money profitably employed than to make it. Changes and
innovations are of continual occurrence. Not only are new securities
constantly coming upon the market, but new subjects as a basis of
their production are industriously sought after. Every newly
discovered force or process in mechanics means the appearance of
another detachment of paper securities. The War of the Rebellion
popularised the _coupon bond_, in consequence of its adoption by the
government, and made it the favourite form of investment paper.
Railroads and other corporations soon availed themselves of the
confidence which that species of paper inspired, and States, cities,
and counties were soon flooding the country with obligations carrying
long coupon attachments. Many persons have purchased and paid good
prices for mortgage coupon bonds, giving them no control over their
security, who would have rejected share certificates standing for an
equal interest in the property pledged and giving them the right to
participate in its management, with the possibility of a greater
return for their money. Many of the States through careless
legislation have permitted corporations to decide for themselves the
amounts of obligations they might put out, and the privilege has been
very much abused. We now have stocks and bonds upon the market
representing nearly all conceivable kinds of property–telegraph and
telephone companies, mining companies, cattle ranches, grain farms,
water-works, canals, bridges, oil- and gas-wells, electric lighting,
trolley companies, factories and mills, patent rights, steamboat
lines, apartment-houses, etc. Not only are properties of many kinds
used to issue bonds upon, but many kinds of bonds are often issued
upon the same properties. One issue of bonds is sometimes made the
basis of other issues. Some one has said that there never was a time
in the history of the world when it was so easy to invest money–and
to lose it. Of the securities that are offered with first-class
recommendations it is probable that about one third are actually good,
one third have some value, and one third are practically worthless. In
making investments the first and main thing to be studied is safety.
Never buy a security of any kind without having read it. Do not buy
what are commonly known as _cheap securities_. Do not rely solely upon
the advice of a broker; he may have personal interest to serve. By far
the greater number of losses to investors have been in securities
purchased exclusively on the recommendation of interested commission
men. It is a mistake to give preference to _listed_ securities–that
is, those reported on the stock-exchange lists. Stocks are too often
listed simply for speculative purposes, and the price represents not
so much the value of the property as the pitch of the speculation at
the time. Securities in the long run must stand upon their merits. As
a rule the best time for an experienced investor to buy is when others
are unloading.

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ambitious dream; he now controlled practically everything
concerned in the manufacture and sale of petroleum
Thus in less than ten years Rockefeller had realized his
ambitious dream; he now controlled practically everything
concerned in the manufacture and sale of petroleum. The change
had come about so stealthily, so secretly, and even so
remorselessly that it impressed the public almost as the work of
some uncanny genius. What were the forces, personal and economic,
that had produced this new phenomenon in our business life? In
certain particulars the Standard Oil monopoly was the product of
well-understood principles. From his earliest days John D.
Rockefeller had struggled to eliminate the middleman. He
established factories to build his own barrels, to make his own
acids; he created his own selling firms, and, instead of paying
large storage charges, he constructed his own warehouses in New
York. From his earliest days as a refiner, he had adopted the
principle of paying no man a profit, and of performing all the
intermediate acts that had formerly resulted in large tribute to
middlemen. Moreover, the Standard Oil Company was apparently the
first great American industrial enterprise that realized the
necessity of operating with an abundant capital. Not the least of
Mr. Rockefeller”s achievements was his success in associating
with the new company men having great financial standing–Amasa
Stone, Benjamin Brewster, Oliver Jennings, and the like,
capitalists whose banking resources, placed at the disposition of
the Standard, gave it an immense advantage over its rivals. While
his competitors were ‘kiting’ checks and waiting, hat in hand, on
the good nature of the money lenders, Rockefeller always had a
large bank balance, upon which he could instantly draw for his
operations.

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continent of Asia, somewhat as the British Isles are situated to the
west of the continent of Europe
Japan consists of a group of islands situated to the east of the
continent of Asia, somewhat as the British Isles are situated to the
west of the continent of Europe. But the Japan islands are of volcanic
origin and are very numerous. There are said to be 4223 of them.
However, there are only four that are of important size, and it is
these that are usually thought of when Japan is spoken of. The area of
these four islands is 147,655 miles, which is almost a fourth more
than that of Great Britain and Ireland. The population (census of
1895) is 42,270,620, which is 4,000,000 more than that of Great
Britain and Ireland. The population per square mile is 286, which,
though large, is not quite so large as that of Great Britain. If,
however, we do not take into consideration the northern island (Yezo),
which is still partly inhabited by uncivilised aborigines, the
population per square mile is 375, which is considerably in excess of
that of both China and Great Britain and Ireland, though still
considerably less than that of England alone. The above statistics do
not include the island of Formosa (area 13,500 miles, population
almost 2,000,000), which was transferred from China to Japan in 1895,
at the close of the late Chino-Japanese war.

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MINERALS are employed that Germany has made most noticeable progress
It is in the development of her mines and of manufactures in which
MINERALS are employed that Germany has made most noticeable progress.
She produces four times as much coal as France, and she has over 1000
separate iron-mines. Her production of iron has increased tenfold in
fifty years. She employs over 400,000 men in her mines, and by the
use of labour-saving machinery one man can now produce as much as
three men could produce fifty years ago. Her HARDWARE manufactures
are one sixth of her total manufactures, and in the past half century
they have increased sixfold. They are now double those of France, and
are only one fourth less than those of Great Britain. She has 750
factories devoted to the making of machinery alone. Two of
these–Krupp”s at Essen, and Borsig”s at Berlin–are among the
largest in the world. Krupp”s employs 20,000 men, has 310
steam-engines, and covers an area of 1000 acres. Borsig”s employs
10,000 men, and in fifty years, starting from nothing, has turned out
nearly 4000 locomotives. One of Krupp”s hammers (a fifty-ton hammer)
cost $500,000.

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it has made sure that its non-payment has not been brought about by
some error or misunderstanding
The bank should never hand to its notary any paper for protest until
it has made sure that its non-payment has not been brought about by
some error or misunderstanding. Quite often, even though the paper has
been made payable at a bank, the notary sends a messenger with the
note to the maker to make a formal demand for payment.

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5. The character of the merchandise owned by the borrower. What would
it bring under the hammer? Groceries and raw material can usually be
turned into cash at a forced sale at very small discount from current
prices. Not so with hardware, glass, dry goods, boots and shoes,
books, etc. Machinery and fixtures are not a bankable asset upon
which to base credit.

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as regards orthography, the use of capitals and of punctuation
Every printing establishment of any note has its methods and customs
as regards orthography, the use of capitals and of punctuation. As a
rule it is best to leave doubtful points to the printer. Any little
deviation desired may be easily remedied in the proofs.

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